The Linux Command Line (2012)

Part III. Common Tasks and Essential Tools

Chapter 22. Printing

After spending the last couple of chapters manipulating text, it’s time to put that text on paper. In this chapter, we’ll look at the command-line tools that are used to print files and control printer operation. We won’t be looking at how to configure printing, as that varies from distribution to distribution and is usually set up automatically during installation. Note that we will need a working printer configuration to perform the exercises in this chapter.

We will discuss the following commands:

· pr—Convert text files for printing.

· lpr—Print files.

· lp—Print files (System V).

· a2ps—Format files for printing on a PostScript printer.

· lpstat—Show printer status information.

· lpq—Show printer queue status.

· lprm—Cancel print jobs.

· cancel—Cancel print jobs (System V).

A Brief History of Printing

To fully understand the printing features found in Unix-like operating systems, we must first learn some history. Printing on Unix-like systems goes way back to the beginning of the operating system itself. In those days, printers and how they were used were much different from how they are today.

Printing in the Dim Times

Like the computers themselves, printers in the pre-PC era tended to be large, expensive, and centralized. The typical computer user of 1980 worked at a terminal connected to a computer some distance away. The printer was located near the computer and was under the watchful eyes of the computer’s operators.

When printers were expensive and centralized, as they often were in the early days of Unix, it was common practice for many users to share a printer. To identify print jobs belonging to a particular user, a banner page displaying the name of the user was often printed at the beginning of each print job. The computer support staff would then load up a cart containing the day’s print jobs and deliver them to the individual users.

Character-Based Printers

The printer technology of the ’80s was very different in two respects. First, printers of that period were almost always impact printers. Impact printers use a mechanical mechanism that strikes a ribbon against the paper to form character impressions on the page. Two of the popular technologies of that time were daisy-wheel printing and dot-matrix printing.

The second, and more important, characteristic of early printers was that they used a fixed set of characters that were intrinsic to the device itself. For example, a daisy-wheel printer could print only the characters actually molded into the petals of the daisy wheel. This made the printers much like high-speed typewriters. As with most typewriters, they printed using monospaced (fixed-width) fonts. This means that each character has the same width. Printing was done at fixed positions on the page, and the printable area of a page contained a fixed number of characters. Most printers printed 10 characters per inch (CPI) horizontally and 6 lines per inch (LPI) vertically. Using this scheme, a US-letter sheet of paper is 85 characters wide and 66 lines high. Taking into account a small margin on each side, 80 characters was considered the maximum width of a print line. This explains why terminal displays (and our terminal emulators) are normally 80 characters wide. It provides a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) view of printed output, using a monospaced font.

Data is sent to a typewriter-like printer in a simple stream of bytes containing the characters to be printed. For example, to print an a, the ASCII character code 97 is sent. In addition, the low-numbered ASCII control codes provided a means of moving the printer’s carriage and paper, using codes for carriage return, line feed, form feed, and so on. Using the control codes, it’s possible to achieve some limited font effects, such as boldface, by having the printer print a character, backspace, and print the character again to get a darker print impression on the page. We can actually witness this if we use nroff to render a man page and examine the output using cat -A:

[me@linuxbox ˜]$ zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | nroff -man | cat -A | head
LS(1) User Commands LS(1)
$
$
$
N^HNA^HAM^HME^HE$
ls - list directory contents$
$
S^HSY^HYN^HNO^HOP^HPS^HSI^HIS^HS$
l^Hls^Hs [_^HO_^HP_^HT_^HI_^HO_^HN]... [_^HF_^HI_^HL_^HE]...$

The ^H (ctrl-H) characters are the backspaces used to create the boldface effect. Likewise, we can also see a backspace/underscore sequence used to produce underlining.

Graphical Printers

The development of GUIs led to major changes in printer technology. As computers moved to more picture-based displays, printing moved from character-based to graphical techniques. This was facilitated by the advent of the low-cost laser printer, which, instead of printing fixed characters, could print tiny dots anywhere in the printable area of the page. This made printing proportional fonts (like those used by typesetters), and even photographs and high-quality diagrams, possible.

However, moving from a character-based scheme to a graphical scheme presented a formidable technical challenge. Here’s why: The number of bytes needed to fill a page using a character-based printer can be calculated this way (assuming 60 lines per page, each containing 80 characters): 60 × 80 = 4,800 bytes.

In comparison, a 300-dot-per-inch (DPI) laser printer (assuming an 8-by-10-inch print area per page) requires (8 × 300) × (10 × 300) ÷ 8 = 900,000 bytes.

Many of the slow PC networks simply could not handle the nearly 1 megabyte of data required to print a full page on a laser printer, so it was clear that a clever invention was needed.

That invention turned out to be the page-description language. A page-description language (PDL) is a programming language that describes the contents of a page. Basically it says, “Go to this position, draw the character a in 10-point Helvetica, go to this position. . . .” until everything on the page is described. The first major PDL was PostScript from Adobe Systems, which is still in wide use today. The PostScript language is a complete programming language tailored for typography and other kinds of graphics and imaging. It includes built-in support for 35 standard, high-quality fonts, plus the ability to accept additional font definitions at runtime. At first, support for PostScript was built into the printers themselves. This solved the data transmission problem. While the typical PostScript program was verbose in comparison to the simple byte stream of character-based printers, it was much smaller than the number of bytes required to represent the entire printed page.

A PostScript printer accepted a PostScript program as input. The printer contained its own processor and memory (oftentimes making the printer a more powerful computer than the computer to which it was attached) and executed a special program called a PostScript interpreter, which read the incoming PostScript program and rendered the results into the printer’s internal memory, thus forming the pattern of bits (dots) that would be transferred to the paper. The generic name for this process of rendering something into a large bit pattern (called a bitmap) is raster image processor, or RIP.

As the years went by, both computers and networks became much faster. This allowed the RIP to move from the printer to the host computer, which, in turn, permitted high-quality printers to be much less expensive.

Many printers today still accept character-based streams, but many low-cost printers do not. They rely on the host computer’s RIP to provide a stream of bits to print as dots. There are still some PostScript printers, too.

Printing with Linux

Modern Linux systems employ two software suites to perform and manage printing. The first, CUPS (Common Unix Printing System), provides print drivers and print-job management; the second, Ghostscript, a PostScript interpreter, acts as a RIP.

CUPS manages printers by creating and maintaining print queues. As we discussed in our brief history lesson, Unix printing was originally designed to manage a centralized printer shared by multiple users. Since printers are slow by nature, compared to the computers that are feeding them, printing systems need a way to schedule multiple print jobs and keep things organized. CUPS also has the ability to recognize different types of data (within reason) and can convert files to a printable form.

Preparing Files for Printing

As command line users, we are mostly interested in printing text, though it is certainly possible to print other data formats as well.

pr—Convert Text Files for Printing

We looked at pr a little in the previous chapter. Now we will examine some of its many options used in conjunction with printing. In our history of printing, we saw that character-based printers use monospaced fonts, resulting in fixed numbers of characters per line and lines per page. pr is used to adjust text to fit on a specific page size, with optional page headers and margins. Table 22-1 summarizes the most commonly used options.

Table 22-1. Common pr Options

pr is often used in pipelines as a filter. In this example, we will produce a directory listing of /usr/bin and format it into paginated, three-column output using pr:

[me@linuxbox ˜]$ ls /usr/bin | pr −3 -w 65 | head


2012-02-18 14:00 Page 1
[ apturl bsd-write
411toppm ar bsh
a2p arecord btcflash
a2ps arecordmidi bug-buddy
a2ps-lpr-wrapper ark buildhash

Sending a Print Job to a Printer

The CUPS printing suite supports two methods of printing historically used on Unix-like systems. One method, called Berkeley or LPD (used in the Berkeley Software Distribution version of Unix), uses the lpr program; the other method, called SysV (from the System V version of Unix), uses the lp program. Both programs do roughly the same thing. Choosing one over the other is a matter of personal taste.

lpr—Print Files (Berkeley Style)

The lpr program can be used to send files to the printer. It may also be used in pipelines, as it accepts standard input. For example, to print the results of our multicolumn directory listing above, we could do this:

[me@linuxbox ˜]$ls /usr/bin | pr −3 | lpr

The report would be sent to the system’s default printer. To send the file to a different printer, the -P option can used like this:

lpr -P printer_name

where printer_name is the name of the desired printer. To see a list of printers known to the system:

[me@linuxbox ˜]$ lpstat -a